Episode 7.3 · 15 min

the first stone tools, the first members of our genus Homo, and the big-toothed Paranthropus

Who made the first stone tools—and what did stone change for our early relatives? From Kenya’s 3.3-million-year-old cores and flakes to hippo butchery at Nyayanga, this episode follows the uncertain beginnings of deliberate tool use, the emergence of Homo, and Paranthropus’s very different answer to changing foods: enormous chewing teeth. By two million years ago, several branches still overlapped, as a taller Homo approached.

Watch this film on YouTube ↗

Visual credits

34 sources

Sources and credits for imagery used in this film, including material incorporated into explanatory animations.

Paranthropus aethiopicus: the Black Skull
Akrasia25
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY-SA 4.0
Resized and reframed; animated crest highlight added by this channel.
Stone tool use by a capuchin monkey
Tiago Falótico
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY-SA 4.0
Resized for video.
Paranthropus boisei skull cast, Springfield Science Museum
Daderot
View original source ↗Source licence: CC0
Resized for video.
Paranthropus boisei skull cast, MGL 95211
Rama
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY-SA 3.0 France
Resized and composited; animated cheekbone highlights added by this channel.
Young chimpanzee Shangwe cracking a nut at Artis Royal Zoo
Kitty Terwolbeck
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 2.0
Resized for video.
Paranthropus boisei lower jaw cast, ER 729
Bjoertvedt
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY-SA 4.0
Resized for video.
OH 80 Paranthropus boisei teeth, Figure 1
Photographs of individual teeth by J Trueba and MJ Ortega; composition by JL Heaton
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 4.0
Resized for video.
From Domínguez-Rodrigo et al., First Partial Skeleton of a 1.34-Million-Year-Old Paranthropus boisei from Bed II, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, PLOS ONE (2013), doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080347. Copyright © 2013 Domínguez-Rodrigo et al.
Flint-knapping demonstration
Tonto National Monument
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 2.0
Resized for video.
NPS photo.
Homo habilis skull, KNM-ER 1813
Akrasia25
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY-SA 4.0
Resized for video.
Paranthropus boisei tooth microwear, Figure 1
Peter S. Ungar, Frederick E. Grine and Mark F. Teaford
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 2.5
Figure extracted and resized for video.
Copyright © 2008 Ungar et al.
Flaked and pounded stone tools from Nyayanga, Figure 2
Isabella Caricola, Luigi Germinario, Emma M. Finestone, Claudio Mazzoli, Laura Bishop, James S. Oliver, Rahab N. Kinyanjui, Peter W. Ditchfield, Richard Potts, Cristina Lemorini and Thomas W. Plummer
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 4.0
Figure extracted and resized for video.
© The Author(s) 2026.
Lucy skeleton cast
120
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 2.5
Resized for video; source image already has a digitally prepared black background.
Hadar landscape, Ethiopia, 1973
Raymonde Bonnefille
View original source ↗Source licence: Licence Ouverte 2.0
Resized for video.
Fonds Raymonde Bonnefille, MédiHAL hal-05354623; IRD / CNRS / INSU.
LD-350-1 mandible drawing
Brobt
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY-SA 4.0
Rasterized, resized and composited; animated jaw and tooth-row highlights added by this channel.
Flakes produced during capuchin nut cracking, Figure 4A–F
Tomos Proffitt, Paula de Sousa Medeiros, Waldney Pereira Martins and Lydia V. Luncz
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 4.0
Cropped to Figure 4 panels A–F and resized for video.
Oldowan stone tools at the Timiryazev Museum
Александр Сигачёв
View original source ↗Source licence: CC0
Cropped to the seven displayed stones, padded and resized for video.
Cut marks on a Nyayanga hippo tibia, Figure 3A
Thomas W. Plummer, James S. Oliver, Emma M. Finestone, Peter W. Ditchfield, Laura C. Bishop, Scott A. Blumenthal, Cristina Lemorini, Isabella Caricola, Shara E. Bailey, Andy I. R. Herries, Jennifer A. Parkinson, Elizabeth Whitfield, Fritz Hertel, Rahab N. Kinyanjui, Thomas H. Vincent, Youjuan Li, Julien Louys, Stephen R. Frost, David R. Braun, Jonathan S. Reeves, Emily D. G. Early, Blasto Onyango, Raquel Lamela-Lopez, Frances L. Forrest, Huaiyu He, Timothy P. Lane, Marine Frouin, Sébastien Nomade, Evan P. Wilson, Simion K. Bartilol, Nelson Kiprono Rotich and Richard Potts
View original source ↗
Cropped to Figure 3A and resized for video.
Copyright © 2023 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works.
Cut mark on a Nyayanga hippo rib, Figure 3B
Thomas W. Plummer, James S. Oliver, Emma M. Finestone, Peter W. Ditchfield, Laura C. Bishop, Scott A. Blumenthal, Cristina Lemorini, Isabella Caricola, Shara E. Bailey, Andy I. R. Herries, Jennifer A. Parkinson, Elizabeth Whitfield, Fritz Hertel, Rahab N. Kinyanjui, Thomas H. Vincent, Youjuan Li, Julien Louys, Stephen R. Frost, David R. Braun, Jonathan S. Reeves, Emily D. G. Early, Blasto Onyango, Raquel Lamela-Lopez, Frances L. Forrest, Huaiyu He, Timothy P. Lane, Marine Frouin, Sébastien Nomade, Evan P. Wilson, Simion K. Bartilol, Nelson Kiprono Rotich and Richard Potts
View original source ↗
Cropped to Figure 3B and resized for video.
Copyright © 2023 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works.
Paranthropus molars from Nyayanga, Figure 4A–B
Thomas W. Plummer, James S. Oliver, Emma M. Finestone, Peter W. Ditchfield, Laura C. Bishop, Scott A. Blumenthal, Cristina Lemorini, Isabella Caricola, Shara E. Bailey, Andy I. R. Herries, Jennifer A. Parkinson, Elizabeth Whitfield, Fritz Hertel, Rahab N. Kinyanjui, Thomas H. Vincent, Youjuan Li, Julien Louys, Stephen R. Frost, David R. Braun, Jonathan S. Reeves, Emily D. G. Early, Blasto Onyango, Raquel Lamela-Lopez, Frances L. Forrest, Huaiyu He, Timothy P. Lane, Marine Frouin, Sébastien Nomade, Evan P. Wilson, Simion K. Bartilol, Nelson Kiprono Rotich and Richard Potts
View original source ↗
Cropped to Figure 4A–B, padded and resized for video.
Copyright © 2023 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works.
Paranthropus boisei hand, KNM-ER 101000, Figure 3
Carrie S. Mongle, Caley M. Orr, Matthew W. Tocheri, Thomas Cody Prang, Frederick E. Grine, Craig Feibel, Biren A. Patel, Olivia Laureijs, Tara E. Hobbs, Stephanie Maiolino, James Rossie, Winfred Mbogo, Anton Du Plessis, John Lonyericho, William Woto Huka, Hilary Sale, Abdi Umuro, Peter Yirgudo, Ibrae Dalacha, Martin Kirinya, Ezekiel Linga, Richard Loki, Apolo Longaye, Malmalo Longaye, Emmanuel Lonyericho, Iyole Loyapan, Nyiber Nakudo, Cyprian Nyete, Meave G. Leakey and Louise N. Leakey; hand outline by Francis Tre Lawrence
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
Cropped to the palmar view in Figure 3, padded and resized for video.
© The Author(s) 2025.
Quartz stone tools from Nyayanga, Figure 3
Emma M. Finestone, Thomas W. Plummer, Peter W. Ditchfield, Jonathan S. Reeves, David R. Braun, Simion K. Bartilol, Nelson Kiprono Rotich, Laura C. Bishop, James S. Oliver, Rahab N. Kinyanjui, Michael D. Petraglia, Paul S. Breeze, Cristina Lemorini, Isabella Caricola, Paul Owich Obondo and Richard Potts
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 4.0
Cropped to the vein-quartz artifact panel in Figure 3 and resized for video.
Copyright © 2025 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works. Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 (CC BY).
Nyayanga stone tools by geological source, Figure 3
Emma M. Finestone, Thomas W. Plummer, Peter W. Ditchfield, Jonathan S. Reeves, David R. Braun, Simion K. Bartilol, Nelson Kiprono Rotich, Laura C. Bishop, James S. Oliver, Rahab N. Kinyanjui, Michael D. Petraglia, Paul S. Breeze, Cristina Lemorini, Isabella Caricola, Paul Owich Obondo and Richard Potts
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 4.0
Cropped to the Nyanzian, Bukoban and Homa Mountain columns of Figure 3 and resized for video.
Copyright © 2025 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works. Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 (CC BY).
Long-tailed macaque using a stone to crack a snail
Lydia V Luncz, Amanda Tan, Michael Haslam, Lars Kulik, Tomos Proffitt, Suchinda Malaivijitnond and Michael Gumert
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 4.0
Cropped to panel A and resized for video.
From Resource depletion through primate stone technology, eLife 2017;6:e23647, doi:10.7554/eLife.23647.013.
Macaque pounding stone and broken shells
Lydia V Luncz, Amanda Tan, Michael Haslam, Lars Kulik, Tomos Proffitt, Suchinda Malaivijitnond and Michael Gumert
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 4.0
Cropped to panel C and resized for video.
From Resource depletion through primate stone technology, eLife 2017;6:e23647, doi:10.7554/eLife.23647.013.
Bokol Dora stone flake, Ethiopia
David R. Braun
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY-SA 2.0
Cropped from the source image and resized for video.
Oldowan chopper from Melka Kunture, Ethiopia
Didier Descouens
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY-SA 4.0
Cropped to a single artifact view and resized for video.
Lomekwi 3 stone core, Figure 4b
Sonia Harmand, Jason E. Lewis, Craig S. Feibel, Christopher J. Lepre, Sandrine Prat, Arnaud Lenoble, Xavier Boës, Rhonda L. Quinn, Michel Brenet, Adrian Arroyo, Nicholas Taylor, Sophie Clément, Guillaume Daver, Jean-Philip Brugal, Louise Leakey, Richard A. Mortlock, James D. Wright, Sammy Lokorodi, Christopher Kirwa, Dennis V. Kent and Hélène Roche
View original source ↗
Cropped to Figure 4b and resized for video.
© 2015 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved.
Captive chimpanzees cracking nuts, S2 Video
Arroyo A, Hirata S, Matsuzawa T and de la Torre I
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 4.0
Transcoded, excerpted and resized for video.
S2 Video from Nut Cracking Tools Used by Captive Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and Their Comparison with Early Stone Age Percussive Artefacts from Olduvai Gorge, PLOS ONE (2016), doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0166788.
Gelada at Lalibela, Ethiopia
Jenn
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 2.0
Transcoded, excerpted and resized for video.
Nyayanga stone-source map, adapted from Figure 2
Emma M. Finestone, Thomas W. Plummer, Peter W. Ditchfield, Jonathan S. Reeves, David R. Braun, Simion K. Bartilol, Nelson Kiprono Rotich, Laura C. Bishop, James S. Oliver, Rahab N. Kinyanjui, Michael D. Petraglia, Paul S. Breeze, Cristina Lemorini, Isabella Caricola, Paul Owich Obondo and Richard Potts; redraw and animation by AgentHouse
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 4.0
Geography measured from Figure 2, simplified and redrawn; distance circle and animated highlights added by AgentHouse.
Copyright © 2025 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works. Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 (CC BY).
Earth normal map
Solar System Scope
View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 4.0
Converted to relief shading, reprojected and composited into the Africa maps.
Textures by Solar System Scope (solarsystemscope.com), CC BY 4.0
Natural Earth country boundaries, 1:50 million
Natural Earth; Tom Patterson, Nathaniel Vaughn Kelso and contributors
View original source ↗Source licence: Public domain
Reprojected and styled as coastlines, land fill and country outlines in the Africa map.
Natural Earth country boundaries, 1:50 million
Natural Earth; Tom Patterson, Nathaniel Vaughn Kelso and contributors
View original source ↗Source licence: Public domain
Reprojected and styled as coastlines, land fill and country outlines in the Africa map.
Natural Earth country boundaries, 1:50 million
Natural Earth; Tom Patterson, Nathaniel Vaughn Kelso and contributors
View original source ↗Source licence: Public domain
Reprojected and styled as coastlines, land fill and country outlines in the Africa map.

Stock footage

18 items

Licensed stock footage used in this film, with each item’s creator and source page.

Common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) enters the river in Serengeti National Park. Tanzania.
BlackBoxGuild
View on Envato Elements ↗
Gelada Monkey Eating Grass in Natural Habitat
artush
View on Envato Elements ↗
Aerial view of Lake Victoria and village, Kenya.
AmazingAerial
View on Envato Elements ↗
Gelada Monkey Eats Grass in Field With Others
allenum
View on Envato Elements ↗
Lone Baboon Digging in Dry Grassy Landscape
BlackBoxGuild
View on Envato Elements ↗
Hippo Partially Submerged in Water at Sunset
DovidPro
View on Envato Elements ↗
Aerial view of lake and vegetation, Kenya.
AmazingAerial
View on Envato Elements ↗
Close-Up of Researchers Carefully Excavating a Fossilized Bone at a Dig Site
BlackBoxGuild
View on Envato Elements ↗
Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) in Kibale forest, Uganda
BlackBoxGuild
View on Envato Elements ↗
Hand gripping a tree branch in nature
BlackBoxGuild
View on Envato Elements ↗
Aerial view of Nile river shoreline with papyrus Cyperus papyrus and wetlands, Murchison Falls NP
BlackBoxGuild
View on Envato Elements ↗
Chimpanzee Mother with Infant in Lush Tropical Forest
BlackBoxGuild
View on Envato Elements ↗
A Chimpanzee Walking On All Fours Over Grassy Savanna Park In Uganda. Tracking Shot
BlackBoxGuild
View on Envato Elements ↗
Macaque Walks on Beach Near Gentle Waves
Renaud83
View on Envato Elements ↗
Vultures Feed on Animal Carcass in Dry Field
ATWStock
View on Envato Elements ↗
Aerial view of arid landscape, Kenya.
AmazingAerial
View on Envato Elements ↗
Desert kenya, africa landscape of a from the air and above during an overcast day.
BlackBoxGuild
View on Envato Elements ↗
Adult Side Profile Chewing
panophotograph
View on Envato Elements ↗

Research references

Selected sources from the episode’s research and scientific figures.

Music

Original score
AgentHouse · Project-made score (From Cosmos to Civilization score catalog v4 with bespoke opening and closing)
Impulse responses: Detmold University of Music SRIR database, CC BY 4.0.

Footage and image usage

Credits and usage times retained from the published edition or its production credit record. Where present, times identify visual appearances, not documentary chapters. Source and licence corrections are listed in the visual credits above.

120
Akrasia25 - source: Original source ↗
Arroyo A et al. - source: Original source ↗
Bjoertvedt
Brobt - source: Original source ↗
Carrie S. Mongle et al.; hand outline by Francis Tre Lawrence
Daderot
David R. Braun
Didier Descouens
Emma M. Finestone et al.
Emma M. Finestone et al.; redraw and animation by AgentHouse - source: Original source ↗
Isabella Caricola et al.
Jenn
Kitty Terwolbeck
Lydia V Luncz et al.
Natural Earth; Tom Patterson, Nathaniel Vaughn Kelso and contributors - source: Original source ↗
Peter S. Ungar, Frederick E. Grine and Mark F. Teaford
Photographs of individual teeth by J Trueba and MJ Ortega; composition by JL Heaton
Rama - source: Original source ↗
Raymonde Bonnefille
Solar System Scope - source: Original source ↗
Sonia Harmand et al.
Thomas W. Plummer et al.
Tiago Falótico
Tomos Proffitt et al.
Tonto National Monument
Александр Сигачёв
Original animations and figures created by this channel.
120 — 2:01-2:10
Akrasia25 — 9:59-10:02, 11:28-11:40
allenum — 12:38-12:45
AmazingAerial — 3:23-3:29, 6:09-6:13, 12:19-12:26
Arroyo A, Hirata S, Matsuzawa T and de la Torre I — 3:45-3:49, 3:49-3:53, 3:53-3:58
artush — 12:45-12:50
ATWStock — 8:25-8:29
Bjoertvedt — 1:36-1:42
BlackBoxGuild — 0:51-0:59, 1:21-1:27, 2:14-2:18, 3:58-4:01, 4:56-5:03, 5:10-5:15, 6:23-6:26, 6:26-6:30, 7:04-7:07, 12:12-12:19
Brobt — 9:24-9:35, 9:35-9:47, 10:07-10:11
Carrie S. Mongle, Caley M. Orr, Matthew W. Tocheri, Thomas Cody Prang, Frederick E. Grine, Craig Feibel, Biren A. Patel, Olivia Laureijs, Tara E. Hobbs, Stephanie Maiolino, James Rossie, Winfred Mbogo, Anton Du Plessis, John Lonyericho, William Woto Huka, Hilary Sale, Abdi Umuro, Peter Yirgudo, Ibrae Dalacha, Martin Kirinya, Ezekiel Linga, Richard Loki, Apolo Longaye, Malmalo Longaye, Emmanuel Lonyericho, Iyole Loyapan, Nyiber Nakudo, Cyprian Nyete, Meave G. Leakey and Louise N. Leakey; hand outline by Francis Tre Lawrence — 13:01-13:12
Daderot — 11:58-12:12
David R. Braun — 4:24-4:31
Didier Descouens — 14:16-14:25
DovidPro — 8:18-8:25
Emma M. Finestone, Thomas W. Plummer, Peter W. Ditchfield, Jonathan S. Reeves, David R. Braun, Simion K. Bartilol, Nelson Kiprono Rotich, Laura C. Bishop, James S. Oliver, Rahab N. Kinyanjui, Michael D. Petraglia, Paul S. Breeze, Cristina Lemorini, Isabella Caricola, Paul Owich Obondo and Richard Potts — 0:59-1:02, 6:30-6:34, 7:07-7:15
Emma M. Finestone, Thomas W. Plummer, Peter W. Ditchfield, Jonathan S. Reeves, David R. Braun, Simion K. Bartilol, Nelson Kiprono Rotich, Laura C. Bishop, James S. Oliver, Rahab N. Kinyanjui, Michael D. Petraglia, Paul S. Breeze, Cristina Lemorini, Isabella Caricola, Paul Owich Obondo and Richard Potts; redraw and animation by AgentHouse — 7:15-7:20
Isabella Caricola, Luigi Germinario, Emma M. Finestone, Claudio Mazzoli, Laura Bishop, James S. Oliver, Rahab N. Kinyanjui, Peter W. Ditchfield, Richard Potts, Cristina Lemorini and Thomas W. Plummer — 6:51-7:04
Jenn — 12:50-13:01
Kitty Terwolbeck — 4:01-4:05
Lydia V Luncz, Amanda Tan, Michael Haslam, Lars Kulik, Tomos Proffitt, Suchinda Malaivijitnond and Michael Gumert — 4:09-4:16, 4:22-4:24
Natural Earth; Tom Patterson, Nathaniel Vaughn Kelso and contributors — 2:10-2:14, 6:05-6:09, 9:11-9:19
panophotograph — 8:51-8:59
Peter S. Ungar, Frederick E. Grine and Mark F. Teaford — 12:26-12:33
Photographs of individual teeth by J Trueba and MJ Ortega; composition by JL Heaton — 11:21-11:28
Rama — 11:40-11:44
Raymonde Bonnefille — 9:19-9:24
Renaud83 — 4:50-4:56
Solar System Scope — 2:10-2:14, 6:05-6:09, 9:11-9:19
Sonia Harmand, Jason E. Lewis, Craig S. Feibel, Christopher J. Lepre, Sandrine Prat, Arnaud Lenoble, Xavier Boës, Rhonda L. Quinn, Michel Brenet, Adrian Arroyo, Nicholas Taylor, Sophie Clément, Guillaume Daver, Jean-Philip Brugal, Louise Leakey, Richard A. Mortlock, James D. Wright, Sammy Lokorodi, Christopher Kirwa, Dennis V. Kent and Hélène Roche — 3:29-3:35
Thomas W. Plummer, James S. Oliver, Emma M. Finestone, Peter W. Ditchfield, Laura C. Bishop, Scott A. Blumenthal, Cristina Lemorini, Isabella Caricola, Shara E. Bailey, Andy I. R. Herries, Jennifer A. Parkinson, Elizabeth Whitfield, Fritz Hertel, Rahab N. Kinyanjui, Thomas H. Vincent, Youjuan Li, Julien Louys, Stephen R. Frost, David R. Braun, Jonathan S. Reeves, Emily D. G. Early, Blasto Onyango, Raquel Lamela-Lopez, Frances L. Forrest, Huaiyu He, Timothy P. Lane, Marine Frouin, Sébastien Nomade, Evan P. Wilson, Simion K. Bartilol, Nelson Kiprono Rotich and Richard Potts — 6:34-6:37, 6:37-6:46, 7:49-7:57
Tiago Falótico — 4:05-4:09
Tomos Proffitt, Paula de Sousa Medeiros, Waldney Pereira Martins and Lydia V. Luncz — 4:16-4:22
Tonto National Monument — 5:30-5:32
Александр Сигачёв — 5:44-5:58

How this film was made

Created and editorially directed by Anders Lunde using a custom production system developed over six months. AI assists research, drafting, programming, and visual production; I review and edit the material and make the final editorial decisions. Narration uses text-to-speech. Visuals combine custom-built scientific animations, AI-generated reconstructions, and credited scientific imagery.

Generated reconstructions illustrate scientific interpretations. They are distinct from photographs, specimens, and measured data.

More about the creator and production →

Visual credits

Paranthropus aethiopicus: the Black Skull

Stone tool use by a capuchin monkey

Paranthropus boisei skull cast, Springfield Science Museum

Paranthropus boisei skull cast, MGL 95211

Young chimpanzee Shangwe cracking a nut at Artis Royal Zoo

Paranthropus boisei lower jaw cast, ER 729

OH 80 Paranthropus boisei teeth, Figure 1

Flint-knapping demonstration

Homo habilis skull, KNM-ER 1813

Paranthropus boisei tooth microwear, Figure 1

Flaked and pounded stone tools from Nyayanga, Figure 2

Lucy skeleton cast

Hadar landscape, Ethiopia, 1973

LD-350-1 mandible drawing

Flakes produced during capuchin nut cracking, Figure 4A–F

Oldowan stone tools at the Timiryazev Museum

Cut marks on a Nyayanga hippo tibia, Figure 3A

Cut mark on a Nyayanga hippo rib, Figure 3B

Paranthropus molars from Nyayanga, Figure 4A–B

Paranthropus boisei hand, KNM-ER 101000, Figure 3

Quartz stone tools from Nyayanga, Figure 3

Nyayanga stone tools by geological source, Figure 3

Long-tailed macaque using a stone to crack a snail

Macaque pounding stone and broken shells

Bokol Dora stone flake, Ethiopia

Oldowan chopper from Melka Kunture, Ethiopia

Lomekwi 3 stone core, Figure 4b

Captive chimpanzees cracking nuts, S2 Video

Gelada at Lalibela, Ethiopia

Nyayanga stone-source map, adapted from Figure 2

Earth normal map

Natural Earth country boundaries, 1:50 million

Natural Earth country boundaries, 1:50 million

Natural Earth country boundaries, 1:50 million

Stock footage

Common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) enters the river in Serengeti National Park. Tanzania.

Gelada Monkey Eating Grass in Natural Habitat

Aerial view of Lake Victoria and village, Kenya.

Gelada Monkey Eats Grass in Field With Others

Lone Baboon Digging in Dry Grassy Landscape

Hippo Partially Submerged in Water at Sunset

Aerial view of lake and vegetation, Kenya.

Close-Up of Researchers Carefully Excavating a Fossilized Bone at a Dig Site

Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) in Kibale forest, Uganda

Hand gripping a tree branch in nature

Aerial view of Nile river shoreline with papyrus Cyperus papyrus and wetlands, Murchison Falls NP

Chimpanzee Mother with Infant in Lush Tropical Forest

A Chimpanzee Walking On All Fours Over Grassy Savanna Park In Uganda. Tracking Shot

Macaque Walks on Beach Near Gentle Waves

Vultures Feed on Animal Carcass in Dry Field

Aerial view of arid landscape, Kenya.

Desert kenya, africa landscape of a from the air and above during an overcast day.

Adult Side Profile Chewing

Research references

Music

How this film was made