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Episode 6.5 · 17 min

how early mammals evolved and diversified during the age of dinosaurs

How did a feeding jaw become a hearing system, and what could small mammals do while dinosaurs dominated the land? The story follows Morganucodon and its new jaw hinge through Jurassic swimmers, gliders, and diggers to Cretaceous Repenomamus, while tracing the early separation of the branches leading to egg-laying mammals, marsupials, and placental mammals before the impact.

Watch this film on YouTube ↗

Visual credits

14 sources

Sources and credits for imagery used in this film, including material incorporated into explanatory animations.

  • Virginia opossum carrying young

    N. J. Dowd

    View original source ↗Source licence: Public domain

    Reformatted and reframed for video.

  • Feredocodon mandibular middle ear, Figure 3

    Fangyuan Mao, Chi Zhang, Jicheng Ren, Tao Wang, Guofu Wang, Fakui Zhang, Thomas Rich, Patricia Vickers-Rich and Jin Meng

    View original source ↗

    Panels a–b were cropped from the figure, resized and embedded in an explanatory animation with added callouts.

  • Repenomamus robustus gut contents, Figure 3

    Yaoming Hu, Jin Meng, Yuanqing Wang and Chuankui Li

    View original source ↗

    Shown complete, resized and embedded in an explanatory animation with added callouts.

  • Morganucodon and Kuehneotherium jaw models, Figure 1

    Pamela G. Gill, Mark A. Purnell, Nick Crumpton, Kate Robson Brown, Neil J. Gostling, M. Stampanoni and Emily J. Rayfield

    View original source ↗

    Panels a–b were cropped from the figure, resized and embedded in an explanatory animation with an added callout.

  • Castorocauda lutrasimilis fossil

    Zhe-Xi Luo / Carnegie Museum of Natural History

    View original source ↗

    Resized and letterboxed for video with an added fur-impression callout.

  • Baby mice

    Muhammad Mahdi Karim

    View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY-SA 3.0

    Reformatted and reframed for video.

  • Morganucodon and Kuehneotherium jaw comparison, Figure 1 panels a–b

    Pamela G. Gill, Mark A. Purnell, Nick Crumpton, Kate Robson Brown, Neil J. Gostling, M. Stampanoni and Emily J. Rayfield

    View original source ↗

    Cropped to panels a–b, resized and embedded in an explanatory animation with an added callout.

  • Feredocodon mandibular middle ear, Figure 3 panels a–b

    Fangyuan Mao, Chi Zhang, Jicheng Ren, Tao Wang, Guofu Wang, Fakui Zhang, Thomas Rich, Patricia Vickers-Rich and Jin Meng

    View original source ↗

    Cropped to panels a–b, resized and embedded in an explanatory animation with added callouts.

  • PALEOMAP PaleoDEM 70 Ma elevation grid

    Christopher R. Scotese and Nicky M. Wright

    View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 4.0

    Adapted as shaded-relief paleogeography.

  • PALEOMAP PaleoDEM 160 Ma elevation grid

    Christopher R. Scotese and Nicky M. Wright

    View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 4.0

    Adapted as shaded-relief paleogeography.

  • PALEOMAP PaleoDEM 165 Ma elevation grid

    Christopher R. Scotese and Nicky M. Wright

    View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 4.0

    Adapted as shaded-relief paleogeography.

  • PALEOMAP PaleoDEM 205 Ma elevation grid

    Christopher R. Scotese and Nicky M. Wright

    View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 4.0

    Adapted as shaded-relief paleogeography.

  • PALEOMAP PaleoDEM 125 Ma elevation grid

    Christopher R. Scotese and Nicky M. Wright

    View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 4.0

    Adapted as shaded-relief paleogeography.

  • PALEOMAP PaleoDEM 150 Ma elevation grid

    Christopher R. Scotese and Nicky M. Wright

    View original source ↗Source licence: CC BY 4.0

    Adapted as shaded-relief paleogeography.

Research references

Selected sources from the episode’s research and scientific figures.

  1. Norton, Abdala & Benoit 2023 ↗
  2. Araújo et al. 2022 ↗
  3. 2024 ↗
  4. 2025 ↗
  5. 2026 ↗
  6. Ramírez-Chaves et al. 2016 ↗
  7. Wang & Wang 2023 ↗
  8. Nature 2014 ↗
  9. Dryad dataset ↗
  10. Newham et al. 2020 ↗
  11. Comment ↗
  12. Reply ↗
  13. Science 2006 ↗
  14. primary abstract ↗
  15. Angielczyk & Schmitz 2014 ↗
  16. Maor et al. 2017 ↗
  17. Meng et al. 2017 ↗
  18. Science 2005 ↗
  19. DigiMorph specimen page ↗
  20. Nature 2005 ↗
  21. 2024 correction ↗
  22. Zhou et al.2021 ↗
  23. Foley et al., A genomic timescale for placental mammal evolution ↗
  24. King and Beck2020 ↗
  25. Bi et al.2018 ↗
  26. Chimento2023 ↗
  27. Australian Museum platypus ↗
  28. University of Michigan Animal Diversity Web ↗
  29. 2024 review ↗
  30. 2013 ↗
  31. Cornelis et al.2015 marsupials ↗
  32. Wilson et al.2016 ↗
  33. Krause et al.2020 Adalatherium ↗
  34. Wilson et al.2012 ↗
  35. Grossnickle and Newham2016 ↗
  36. NHM media f9294e7a-3069-45c0-b60e-291c4ce0162f ↗
  37. exact figure image ↗
  38. EarthByte resource ↗
  39. Scottsdale platypus photograph ↗
  40. Opossum-with-young.JPG ↗
  41. White-tailed Deer Doe Nursing her Fawn ↗
  42. New Fossil Solves Evolutionary Puzzle ↗
  43. Beasts Before Us lecture ↗
  44. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Duck-billed_platypus_(Ornithorhynchus_anatinus)_Scottsdale.jpg ↗
  45. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:White-tailed_Deer_Doe_Nursing_her_Fawn_(Odocoileus_virginianus)_(8455393979).jpg ↗
  46. dental paper ↗
  47. Luo et al. 2022 ↗
  48. open paper ↗
  49. Meng et al. 2011 ↗
  50. Luo et al. 2007 ↗
  51. Wang, Meng & Wang 2019 ↗
  52. author PDF ↗
  53. 2020 ↗
  54. Bi et al. 2026 ↗
  55. Zenodo 10597270 ↗
  56. MorphoBank P5985 ↗
  57. Zenodo 16193266 ↗
  58. tooth-renewal review ↗
  59. Haldanodon study ↗
  60. Cabreira et al. 2022 ↗
  61. Abdala, Norton & Martinelli 2023 ↗
  62. German et al. 2023, maternal–infant feeding dyad ↗
  63. Oftedal 2002 author PDF ↗
  64. Bristol account ↗
  65. Dryad 10.5061/dryad.62ck3 ↗
  66. Zenodo mirror 13482257 ↗
  67. Kermack et al. 1981 ↗
  68. Clemens 1980 primary monograph ↗
  69. Martin et al. 2015 ↗
  70. discovering institution's account ↗
  71. NSF repository ↗
  72. Sakamoto et al. 2024, Color vision evolution in egg-laying mammals ↗
  73. Gaetano et al. 2026 ↗
  74. record ec8411c1-01c9-42c9-8cc8-017d30212d70 ↗
  75. Carnegie-origin announcement ↗
  76. Author-uploaded original ↗
  77. nature05234 ↗
  78. Luo et al.2017, nature23483 ↗
  79. nature24483 ↗
  80. Grossnickle et al.2020 ↗
  81. Carnegie museum account ↗
  82. article/figure captions ↗
  83. 2017 glider page ↗
  84. 2023 ↗
  85. MacLennan et al.2024, PNAS2322875121 ↗
  86. author PDF ↗
  87. first-person technical critiques ↗
  88. follow-up ↗
  89. Krause et al.2014 Vintana ↗
  90. doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2026.106223 ↗
  91. https://media.springernature.com/original/springer-static/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fnature03102/MediaObjects/41586_2005_BFnature03102_MOESM1_ESM.doc ↗
  92. PMC10233747 ↗
  93. Zenodo5823345 ↗
  94. Wang et al.2022 Cokotherium ↗
  95. institutional record ↗
  96. Flannery et al.2024 ↗
  97. source announcement ↗
  98. Australian Museum species account ↗
  99. University of Southern Denmark ↗
  100. Cornelis et al.2012 Car1 ↗
  101. Cornelis et al.2013 Rum1 ↗
  102. PubMed primary abstract ↗
  103. Imakawa et al.2015 ↗
  104. bilby genome paper ↗
  105. Suncus study ↗
  106. hal-02502508 ↗
  107. Williamson, Brusatte and Wilson2014 review ↗
  108. primary doi:10.1080/02724634.2026.2641109 ↗
  109. University of Washington/Burke source account ↗
  110. Csiki-Sava et al.2015 European archipelago review ↗
  111. 2022 spatial/temporal study record ↗
  112. 2023 Asioryctes reassessment ↗
  113. Wible et al.2007 Maelestes ↗
  114. Rougier et al. Allen Formation study ↗
  115. 2024 reassessment ↗
  116. 2020 Magallanodon primary institutional PDF ↗
  117. Goswami et al.2011 ↗
  118. Prasad et al.2012 gondwanatherian review ↗
  119. Dryad10.5061/dryad.qk643 ↗
  120. Grossnickle, Smith and Wilson2019 ↗
  121. originating University of Washington account ↗
  122. Zenodo10.5281/zenodo.5460860 ↗
  123. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2234-8).2020 ↗
  124. Victorian scientific assessment ↗
  125. ADW ↗
  126. Zenodo 16193266 ↗
  127. Gliding with dinosaurs ↗
  128. https://www.earthbyte.org/webdav/ftp/Data_Collections/Scotese_Wright_2018_PaleoDEM/PaleoDEMS_long_lat_elev_csv_v2.zip ↗

Music

  • Meditation From The Star Orion
    OctahedronMusic · Envato Elements
Footage and image usage

Credits and usage times retained from the published edition or its production credit record. Where present, times identify visual appearances, not documentary chapters. Source and licence corrections are listed in the visual credits above.

  • Christopher R. Scotese and Nicky M. Wright - source: Original source ↗
  • Fangyuan Mao, Chi Zhang, Jicheng Ren, Tao Wang, Guofu Wang, Fakui Zhang, Thomas Rich, Patricia Vickers-Rich and Jin Meng - source: Original source ↗
  • Muhammad Mahdi Karim
  • N. J. Dowd
  • Pamela G. Gill, Mark A. Purnell, Nick Crumpton, Kate Robson Brown, Neil J. Gostling, M. Stampanoni and Emily J. Rayfield - source: Original source ↗
  • Yaoming Hu, Jin Meng, Yuanqing Wang and Chuankui Li - source: Original source ↗
  • Zhe-Xi Luo / Carnegie Museum of Natural History - source: Original source ↗
  • Original animations and figures created by this channel.
  • Christopher R. Scotese and Nicky M. Wright — 0:27-0:37, 1:15-1:25, 1:25-1:34, 8:15-8:16, 8:15-8:25, 10:05-10:09, 10:08-10:11, 10:45-11:05, 11:05-11:06, 11:05-11:12, 15:07-15:09, 15:08-16:16, 16:16-16:38, 16:16-16:17
  • Fangyuan Mao, Chi Zhang, Jicheng Ren, Tao Wang, Guofu Wang, Fakui Zhang, Thomas Rich, Patricia Vickers-Rich and Jin Meng — 5:55-6:01
  • Muhammad Mahdi Karim — 13:43-13:49
  • N. J. Dowd — 13:30-13:33
  • Pamela G. Gill, Mark A. Purnell, Nick Crumpton, Kate Robson Brown, Neil J. Gostling, M. Stampanoni and Emily J. Rayfield — 3:36-3:47
  • Yaoming Hu, Jin Meng, Yuanqing Wang and Chuankui Li — 11:36-11:51
  • Zhe-Xi Luo / Carnegie Museum of Natural History — 9:04-9:15

How this film was made

Created and editorially directed by Anders Lunde using a custom production system developed over six months. AI assists research, drafting, programming, and visual production; I review and edit the material and make the final editorial decisions. Narration uses text-to-speech. Visuals combine custom-built scientific animations, AI-generated reconstructions, and credited scientific imagery.

Generated reconstructions illustrate scientific interpretations. They are distinct from photographs, specimens, and measured data.

More about the creator and production →